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Written by Sri Swami Chandrashekarendra
Saraswati |
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Four hundred yajnas or sacrifices are said to be mentioned in the Vedas.
Of these, aupasana alone is to be performed by all the four varnas.
Though the first three varnas have the right to all the other
sacrifices, in
practice these were performed mostly by Brahmins and Ksatriyas only.
But later Ksatriyas too neglected to perform them. There are yajnas to
be
conducted specially by them to earn physical strength, victory in war,
and
so on. Sacrifices like rajasuya and asvamedha were performed by imperial
rulers. They are yagas that have to be performed by Vaisyas for a good
agriculture yield, for wealth, etc. As mentioned before, the yajamana of
a
sacrifice may be a Ksatriya or a Vaisya but the four priests must be
Brahmins. (The idea behind it is that if members of these two castes
were
to participate directly in the sacrifices their duties like protecting
the
country and looking after agriculture would suffer.)
Not all sacrifices need be performed by all Brahmins. A number of them
are meant to serve one specific purpose or another. For instance, you
must have heard of the putrakamesti in the Ramayana, the sacrifice
performed to beget a son.
Any rite meant to fulfil a wish is "kamya-karma" and it comes under the
optional category. Then these are rites that are obligatory on your part
to
conduct for the good of your Atman as well as of the world. They come
under the category of "nitya-karma", but the word "nitya" here does not
denote "daily".
In the category of nitya-karma there are 21 sacrifices. There is no
compulsion with regard to the rest of the 400. But the 21, included in
the
forty samskaras, must be performed at least once in a life time. As we
have seen, these are divided into groups of seven - pakayajnas,
haviryajnas and somyajnas.
Marriage is conducted with offerings made in the fire, is it not?
Aupasana,
which must be performed every day, is commenced in this fire and it
must be preserved throughout one's life. The seven pakayajnas, rites
like
upanayana and sraddha must be conducted in the aupasana fire. The son
lights his aupasana fire during his marriage from his father's aupasana
fire. The son's aupasana fire, like his father's must be maintained
throughout his life. Thus, without any break, the sacred fire is kept
burning in the family generation after generation.
All rites in which the aupasana fire is used and pertain to an
individual
and his family are "Grhyakarmas". The seven pakayajnas also belong to
this category. They are related exclusively to the family and are not
very
elaborate. Even so they are conductive to the good of the world outside
also. Grhyasutras deal with such rites. They belong to the Smritis and
are
called "Smartakarmas".
The elaborate works that are especially meant for the well-being of
mankind are called "Srautakarmas". They are so called because their
procedure is directly based on the authority of Sruti or the Vedas. The
sastras dealing with them are "Srautasutras".
I told you, do you remember, that there was no question of Sruti being
superior to Smrti or vice versa? Similarly, the Srautasutras and the
Grhyasutras are of equal importance. In the sanatana dharma that goes
under the name of Hinduism both are to be cared for like our two eyes.
The aupasana fire (lighted at the time of marriage from that of the
groom's father) is divided into two in a ceremony called "agniyadhana".
One part is called "grhyagni" or "smartagni": it is meant for rites to
be
performed at home. The second part is srautagni and meant for srauta
rites. These two sacred fires must be preserved throughout.
Grhyagni is also called aupasanagni since the daily rite of aupasana is
performed in it. This is the fire contained in one "kunda" and so it is
called
"ekagni". Rites conducted in the family are included in the chapter
called
"Ekagnikanda"
in the Apastamba-sutra. The samskaras and other rites I
have so far mentioned are mostly in accordance with this work since the
majority of Brahmins in the South are Krsna-Yajurvedins following this
sutra. Rigvedins and Samavedins who constitute a minority follow the
Asvalayana and Gobhila-sutras respectively. These differences, however,
relate only to the rites performed at home. There are no differences in
the srauta rites with regard to the different Vedas.
Srautagni meant for the srauta rites is in the form of three fires
burning in
three mounds. So it is called tretagni. The section in the Apastamba-sutra
dealing with rites performed in it is called "Tretagni-kanda". One who
worships the three Agnis is called a "tretagni" or "srautin" and, if he
worships the srauta and grhya fires, he is called an "ahitagnin". One
who
performs an elaborate sacrifice like a somayajna is called a "yajva",
"diksita" or "makhin". And one who conducts the greatest of the
somayajnas, vajapeya, is known as a "vajapeyin". Sacrifices are called
variously "kratu", "makha", "isti", "stoma", "samsta". There are some
differences between these. Ancient Tamil works contain references to
"mutti" (tretagni or srautagni).
One of the three sacred fires, one of the tretagni, is called "garhapatya"
and it belongs to the master of the household. It must be kept burning
in
the garhapatya mound which is circular in shape. In this no oblations
are
to be made directly. Fire must be taken from it and tended in another
mound for the performance of rites relating to the fathers (this is
different from the usual sraddha and is ritual performed to the manes
every new moon) and also for certain deities. This mound is in the
south,
so it is called "daksinagni" and it is semicircular in shape. Offerings
to
deities are made generally in a third fire in the east called "ahavaniya"
and it is also to kindled from the garhapatya fire. In the North any
yaga or
sacrificial rite is called a "havan", the word being derived from
"ahavaniya". The ahavaniya mound is square in shape. Big sacrifices like
somayajnas and other meant to propitiate deities are to be conducted in
the fire taken from the ahavaniya mound to the yagnasala or the hall
where a sacrifice is held.
If aupasana is a grhyakarma, agnihotra is a srauta ceremony and it too
must be performed twice a day. Agniyadhana mentioned before and
agnihotra are the first two of the seven haviryajnas. Those who perform
agnihotra are called agnihotrins. (Nowadays smoking is referred to as
agnihotra and going to the races as asvamedha. Such references are
intended to be humorous but are indeed blasphemous.)
If the agnihotra fire is extinguished for whatever reason, it must be
kindled again through a new adhana (agniyadhana) ceremony. The same
applies to the aupasana fire. Now in the majority of houses neither the
aupasana nor the agnihotra fire burns. I have mentioned here how these
fires can be renewed since most of you perhaps must not have kept them
after your marriage.
In aupasana unbroken rice grains are offered in the fire and in
agnihotra
milk, ghee or unbroken rice grains. (It has become customary now to
offer milk in the agnihotra. )
As already mentioned, the daksinagni and the ahavaniyagni are made
from the garhapatyagni. When srauta rites for the fathers have been
performed in the daksinagni and other srauta rites in the ahavaniyagni,
the two fires no longer have the exalted name of "srautagni" and are
just
like any other ordinary fire and they have to be extinguished. Only the
garhapatya and aupasana fires are to be kept burning throughout.
On every Prathama (first day of the lunar fortnight), a pakayajna and a
haviryajna have to be performed in the grhyagni and srautagni
respectively. The first is called sthalipaka. "Sthali" is the pot in
which rice
is cooked and it must be placed on the aupasana fire and the rice called
"caru" cooked in it must be offered in the same fire. The rite that is
the
basis of many others (the archetype or model) is called "prakrti". Those
performed after it, but with some changes, are known as "vikrti". For
the
sarpabali called sravani and the pakayajna called agrahayani, sthalipaka
is
the prakrti.
The haviryajna performed on every Prathama is "darsa-purna-isti",
"darsa" meaning the new moon and "purna" the full moon. So the "istis"
or sacrifices conducted on the day following the new moon and the full
moon (the two Prathamas) are together given the name of darsa-purna
isti. The two rituals are also referred to merely as "isti". This is the
prakrti
for haviryajnas.
For soma sacrifices "agnistoma" is the prakrti, the word "stoma" also
meaning a sacrifice. In conjunction with "agni", the "sto" becomes "sto"
--
"agnistoma". "Sthapita" becomes "establish" in English: here the “sta"
of
the first word becomes "sta" in the second. Some unlettered people
pronounce "star" and "stamp" as "istar" and "istamp". Such phonetic
changes are accepted even in the Vedas.
I will now deal briefly with the remaining paka, havir and soma
sacrifices.
Pakayajnas are minor sacrifices and are performed at home. Even srauta
rites like the first four haviryajnas -adhana, agnihotra,
darsa-purna-masa
and agrayana -are performed at home. The last three haviryajnas -
caturmasya, nirudhapasubandha and sautramani - are performed in a
yagasala.
The yagasala is also known as a "devayajna". The Kalpa-sutras contain a
description of it, not omitting minute details. There are altars called
"cayanas" to be built with bricks. (There are no cayanas for havir and
pakayajnas.) As I said before there is the application of mathematics in
all
this. Several kinds of ladles are used in making offerings in the fire,
"tarvi", "sruk" and "sruva". Their measurements are specified, also the
materials out of which they are made. No detail is left out. In a
nuclear or
space research laboratory even the most insignificant job is carried out
with the utmost care, so is the case with sacrifices which have the
purpose of bringing forth supernatural powers into the world.
To repeat, pakayajnas are simple, "paka" meaning "small", "like a
child".
Cooked food is also "paka"; that is why the art of cooking is called
"pakasastra" and the place where cooking is done is called "pakasala".
Just as in sthalipaka cooked rice is offered in the fire, so too in
pakayajnas
cooked grains are offered in the fire. The watery part is not to be
drained
off - this rite is called "caruhoma". But in aupasana unbroken rice (not
cooked) is offered. In the pakayajna called "astaka" purodasa is offered
in
the fire. Astaka is performed for the fathers. The bright half of a
month
(waxing moon) is special to the celestials while it is the dark half
(waning
moon) for the fathers. The latter is called the "apara-paksa" since
during
this fortnight rites for the fathers are performed. The eighth day of
the
dark fortnight (Astami) is particularly important for them. The astaka
sraddha must be performed on the eighth day of the fortnight during the
Sisira and Hemanta seasons (the first and second half of winter) - in
the
[Tamil] months of Margazhi, Tai, Masi and Panguni. The astaka performed
in Masi is said to be particularly sacred. The rite gone through on the
day
following the astaka is "anvastaka".
"Parvani", one of the pakayajnas, is the prakrti (or the archetype) for
sraddhas. Since it is performed every month it is called "masisraddha".
(This is according to the Apastamba-sutra. According to the Gautamasutra
"parvana" denotes the sthalipaka performed during each "parva" ).
The pakayajna "sravani" is also called "sarpabali". On the full moon of
the
month of Sravana caru rice and ghee are placed in the fire and flowers
of
the flame of the forest are offered similarly by both hands. Designs
have
to be drawn with rice flour over an anthill or some other place and
offerings made to snakes with the chanting of mantras. This ceremony
must be held every full-moon night up to Margazhi (mid-December to
mid-January).
On the Margazhi full moon, apart from completing the sarpabali, the
pakayajna called "agrahayani" must be performed. Like "sravani", the
name "agrahayani" is also derived from the name of the month of the
same name -Agrahayani is Margazhi. "Hayana" means "year" and the first
month of the year is "Agrahayana". In ancient times the year started
with
this month. The first of January [of the Gregorian calendar] falls in
mid-
Margazhi. It was from us that Europe took this as their new year. Though
we changed our calendar later, they stuck to theirs. There are two more
pakayajnas called "caitri" and "asvayuji": these fall respectively, as
their
names suggest, in Cittirai and Aippasi.
Caitri is conducted where four roads meet. Since it is performed for
Isana
it is called "isanabali”: Isana is Paramesvara (Siva). In the other
pakayajnas the deities worshipped are different but through them
Paramesvara is pleased. It is like a tax paid to the ruler through the
subcollector.
In Caitri it is as if the tax is paid directly to the ruler.
In Aippasi, kuruva rice is harvested [in Tamil Nadu]. This is first
offered to
Isvara in the rite called "asvayuji" before it is taken by us. Similarly
samba
rice is eaten only after agrahayani is performed in Margazhi.
The haviryajnas are more elaborate, though not so large in scale as the
somayajnas. Anything offered in the sacrificial fire is called "havis".
In
Tamil works like the Tirukkural it is referred to as "avi". However,
ghee is
specifically referred to as "havis". Sacrifices in which the soma juice
is
offered are called somayajnas and those that are not elaborate are
categorised as pakayajnas. Now the other srauta sacrifices among the
forty samskaras are called haviryajnas.
When I spoke to you earlier about sacrifices I referred to the men who
conduct them. The sacrificer is the yajamana and those who perform the
sacrifice for him are rtviks (priests) who consist of the hota,
adhvaryu,
udgata and brahma.
In pakayajnas there are no rtviks; the householder (as the yajamana)
performs the rites with his wife. In haviryajnas there are four rtviks
and
the yajamana. But the udgata's place is taken by the agnidhra. The
udgata
is the one who sings the Saman. It is only in somayajnas that there is
Samagana, not in haviryajnas. In caturmasya and pasubandha there are
more than the usual number of priests. But there is no need to deal with
them here. I wanted to give you only a basic knowledge of the important
sacrifices that had been conducted for ages until recently.
"Agrayana" is performed on the full moon of Aippasi. In this syamaka
grains are offered in the fire. Caturmasya gives the impression that it
includes a number of sacrifices. Some of you probably know that
"caturmasya" is a term that refers to sannyasins staying at the same
place
during the rainy season. But it is also the name of a haviryajna to be
performed by householders once every four months, in Karttigai,
Panguni, Adi. From this onwards the sacrifices are to be performed in a
yagasala [built in a public place].
The haviryajna called nirudhapasubandha (or simply "pasubandha") is the
first yajna in which there is animal sacrifice, "mrgabali". Though I
have
used the word "bali", technically speaking - or according to the sastras
- it
is not strictly a bali. "Bali" means that which is offered directly -
and not in
the fire. What is offered in the fire is ahuti or havis. The floor
offered in
the anthill for the snakes is sarpabali. In what are called
pancamahayajnas
there is a rite called "vaisvadeva": in this offerings are
made in the fire or they are thrown inside and outside the house with
the
chanting of mantras. The latter are meant for various creatures of the
earth and are termed as bali.
When we make an offering to a deity with mantras we must say "svaha".
When it is made to the fathers we must say "svadha". The corresponding
word to be said when offerings are made to various creatures is "hanta".
Here we have something like the gradation of authority: "your majesty",
"your honour", and so on.
There are rules to determine which part of the sacrificial animal's body
is
to be offered in the sacrificial fire. This is not the same as bali.
What is
offered in the fire is "homa". In pasubandha only one animal is
sacrificed.
In yajnas involving animals there is a yupa-stambha or sacrificial post
of
bamboo or khadira to which the animal is tethered.
In the last haviryajna called "sautramani" sura (liquor or wine) is
offered
to appease certain inferior powers or deities for the welfare of the
world.
Our government, which otherwise strictly enforces prohibition, relaxes
the rules to entertain foreigners with drink, considering the gains to
be
had from them. The oblation of liquor in sautramani is to be justified
on
the same grounds. It is never offered in the sacrifices meant for higher
deities. What is left over of the liquor - what is purified by mantras
-is imbibed by the performers of the sacrifice, the quantity taken in
being
less than a quarter of an ounce. To say that Brahmins drank the soma
juice and sura to their heart's content on the pretext of performing
sacrifices is an outrageous charge. I have already spoken about the
falsehood spread about the partaking of the meat left over from a
sacrifice.
I will now deal briefly with somayajnas or somasamstas. What is a
samsta? The conclusion of the Samavedic hymns chanted by the udgata is
called samsta. Compositions recited in praise of deities are generally
known as stotras. But in the Vedic tradition the Rgvedic hymns are
"sastras". In the Samaveda such hymns which suggest the seven notes or
saptasvara are called stotras. In soma sacrifices it is this, singing of
the
stotras of the Samaveda, that is the major feature. Homa (placing
oblations in the fire) is the dominant feature of paka and haviryajnas
while in somayajna it is the singing of stotras.
The name somayaga is derived from the fact that the essence of the soma
plant, so much relished by the celestials, is made as an oblation. Apart
from this, animals are also sacrificed. Even so the singing of the Saman
creates a mood of ecstasy. When a musician elaborates a raga and
touches the fifth svara of the higher octave the listeners are
transported
to the heights of joy. So in the singing of stotras of the Samaveda
during
the samsta all those assembled for the sacrifice feel as if heaven were
upon earth. This is one reason why somayajna is also known as
"somasamsta".
In such soma sacrifices there is the full complement of priests - the
hota,
the adhvaryu, the udgata and the brahma. Each priest is assisted by
three
others. So in all there are sixteen priests in a soma sacrifice.
Agnistoma
which is the first of the seven somayajnas is the prakrti (archetype)
and
the other six are its vikrti. These six are: atyagnistoma, uktya,
sodasi,
vajapeya, atiratra and aptoryama.
Vajapeya is regarded as particularly important. When its yajamana
(sacrificer) comes after having had his ritual bath (avabhrtha snana) at
the
conclusion of the sacrifice, the king himself holds up a white umbrella
for
him. "Vaja" means rice (food) and "peya" means a drink. As the name
suggests, the vajapeya sacrifice brings in a bountiful crop and
plentiful
water. The name is appropriate in another sense also. This sacrifice
consists of soma-rasa homa, pasu-homa (23 animals) and anna -or vaja
homa. The sacrificer is "bathed" in the rice that is left over. Since
the rice
is "poured over" him like water the term "vajapeya" is apt.
In the old days a Brahmin used all his wealth in performing the soma
sacrifice. Much of this was spent in daksina to the priests and the rest
for
materials used in the sacrifice. Now people are concerned only with
their
wealth and do not perform even sandhyavandana which does not cost
them anything. Among Namputiris, until some forty or fifty years ago, at
least one family out of ten performed the somayajna. Since only the
eldest member of the family could conduct the sacrifice he alone had the
right to property.
There was also a time when even poor Brahmins performed this sacrifice
every spring ("vasante vasante ") by begging. A Brahmin who conducted
the sacrifice every year was thus called "prati-vasanta-somayajin".
The Vedas will flourish in the world if at least the somayajna called
agnistoma or jyotistoma is performed. |
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